GROUP 8
SRINITHI 21133120038
Techniques And Principles In Language Teaching The Grammar-Translation Method
Book by Diane Larsen-Freeman and Marti Anderson
The Grammar-Translation Method is not new. It has had different names, but it hasbeen used by language teachers for many years. At one time it was called the Classical Method since it was first used in the teaching of the classical languages, Latin and Greek. Earlier in the 20th century, this method was used for the purpose of helping students to read and appreciate foreign language literature. It was also hoped that through the study of the grammar of the target language1 students would become more familiar with the grammar of their native language and that this familiarity would help them speak and write their native language better. Finally, it was thought that foreign language learning would help students grow intellectually; it was recognized that students would probably never use the target language, but the mental exercise of learning it would be beneficial anyway.Introduction As with the Grammar-Translation Method, the Direct Method is not new. Its principles have been applied by language teachers for many years. Most recently, it was revived as a method when the goal of instruction became learning how to use another language to communicate. Since the Grammar-Translation Method was not very effective in preparing students to use the target language communicatively, the Direct Method became popular.The Direct Method has one very basic rule: No translation is allowed. In fact, the Direct Method receives its name from the fact that meaning is to be conveyed directly in the target language through the use of demonstration and visual aids, with recourse to the students’ native language.The Audio-Lingual Method, like the Direct Method we have just examined, is also an oral-based approach. However, it is very different, in that rather than emphasizing vocabulary acquisition through exposure to its use in situations, the Audio-Lingual Method drills students in the use of grammatical sentence patterns. Also, unlike the Direct Method, it has a strong theoretical base in linguistics and psychology. Charles Fries (1945) of the University of Michigan led the way in applying principles from structural linguistics in developing the method, and for this reason, it has sometimes been referred to as the ‘Michigan Method.’ Later in its development, principles from behavioral psychology (Skinner 1957) were incorporated. It was thought that the way to acquire the sentence patterns of the target language was through conditioning—helping learners to respond correctly to stimuli through shaping and reinforcement, sothat the learners could overcome the habits of their native language and form the newhabits required to be target language speakers.
The Silent Way
Although people did learn languages through the Audio-Lingual Method, and indeed the method is still practiced today, one problem with it was students’ inability toreadily transfer the habits they had mastered in the classroom to communicative use outside it. Furthermore, the idea that learning a language meant forming a set of habits was seriously challenged in the early 1960s. Linguist Noam Chomsky argued that language acquisition could not possibly take place through habit formation sincepeople create and understand utterances they have never heard before. Chomskyproposed instead that speakers have a knowledge of underlying abstract rules, whichallow them to understand and create novel utterances. Thus, Chomsky reasoned, language must not be considered a product of habit formation, but rather of rule formation. Accordingly, language acquisition must be a procedure whereby people use their own thinking processes, or cognition, to discover the rules of the language they are acquiring.The emphasis on human cognition led to the establishment of the Cognitive Code Approach. Rather than simply being responsive to stimuli in the environment,learners were seen to be much more actively responsible for their own learning,engaged in formulating hypotheses in order to discover the rules of the targetlanguage.
Desuggestopedia
The originator of the method we will be exploring in this chapter, Georgi Lozanov,believes, as does Silent Way’s Caleb Gattegno, that language learning can occur at a much faster rate than ordinarily transpires. The reason for our inefficiency, Lozanovasserts, is that we set up psychological barriers to learning: We fear that we will beunable to perform, that we will be limited in our ability to learn, that we will fail. Oneresult is that we do not use the full mental powers that we have. According toLozanov and others, we may be using only five to ten percent of our mental capacity.In order to make better use of our reserve capacity, the limitations we think we haveneed to be ‘desuggested.’ Desuggestopedia,1 the application of the study of suggestionto pedagogy, has been developed to help students eliminate the feeling that theycannot be successful and/or the negative association they may have toward studyingand thus to help them overcome the barriers to learning. One of the ways the students’mental reserves are stimulated is through integration of the fine arts, an importantcontribution to the method made by Lozanov’s colleague Evelina Gateva.
Communicative Language Teaching
You may have noticed that the goal of most of the methods we have looked at so far is for students to learn to communicate in the target language. In the 1970s, though,educators began to question if they were going about meeting the goal in the rightway. Some observed that students couldproduce sentences accurately in a lesson, but could not use them appropriately when genuinely communicating outside of theclassroom. Others noted that being able to communicate required more than masteringlinguistic structure, due to the fact that language was fundamentally social (Halliday1973). Within a social context, language users needed to perform certain functions,such as promising, inviting, and declining invitations (Wilkins 1976). Students may know the rules of linguistic usage, but be unable to use the language (Widdowson1978). In short, being able to communicate required more than linguistic competence; it required communicative competence (Hymes 1971)—knowingwhen and how to say what to whom. Such observations contributed to a shift in thefield in the late 1970s and early 1980s from a linguistic structure-centered approach to
a Communicative Approach
(Widdowson 1990; Savignon 1997).Applying the theoretical perspective of the Communicative Approach,Communicative Language Teaching (CLT) aims broadly to make communicativeCompetence the goal of language teaching. What this looks like in the classroom maydepend on how the principles are interpreted and applied. Indeed, Klapper (2003)makes the point that because CLT lacks closely prescribed classroom techniques, ascompared with some of the other methods we have just looked at, CLT is ‘fuzzy’ inteachers’ understanding. This fuzziness has given CLT a flexibility which has allowedit to endure for thirty years.
SUMITHRA 21133120039
Approaches and Methods in Language Teaching – Jack C Richards and Theodore S. Rodgers
ISBN-13 - 978-0-511-66730-5 - OCeISBN
ISBN-13 - 978-0-521-80365-6 – hardback
ISBN-13 - 978-0-521-00843-3 – paperback
Edition – Second Edition
Publication - Published in the United States of America by Cambridge University Press, New York first published in print format in 2001.
Born in New Zealand, Dr. Richards obtained a Master of Arts degree with first class honors in English from Victoria University in Wellington, New Zealand, in 1966. He obtained his Ph.D. in Applied Linguistics from Laval University (a French-Language University) in Quebec City, Canada in 1972. He has worked in many parts of the world, including New Zealand, Canada, Indonesia, Singapore, Hong Kong, and the United States. After completing his PhD, he taught in Indonesia and was then appointed specialist in applied linguistics at the Regional Language Centre Singapore, under the auspices of the New Zealand Government. Later he was Senior Lecturer in English at the Chinese University of Hong Kong, before being appointed full professor in the Department of English as a Second Language at the University of Hawaii in 1981. In 1989 he returned to Hong Kong to set up a new department of English at the City University of Hong Kong, where he was head of the department of English and also chair professor. In 1996 he returned to his home country for two years to set up an MA program at the University of Auckland. In 1999 Dr. Richards retired from full-time university teaching and administration and since then has taught short courses and workshops in different locations, including the Regional Language Centre (RELC), Singapore and Sydney University, where he is an honorary professor. Dr. Theodore Rodgers has been a faculty member at the University of Hawaii since 1968 and has been Professor of Psycholinguistics since 1976. In Hawaii, he has served on the faculties of Education, English, and English as a Second Language, Information Sciences and Psychology. For fifteen years he directed the Hawaii English Program, the largest venture in language education curriculum development as yet undertaken in the U.S. He has authored some sixty books and articles and is co-author (with Jack Richards) of a text on language teaching methodology, Approaches and Methods in Language Teaching (Cambridge University Press, Second edition 2001).
Jack C. Richards’ and Theodore S. Rodgers’ Approaches and Methods in Language Teaching, is a wonderful treatise for graduate students, teachers, ESL/EFL practitioners and the general public. It is comprehensive, well organized, easy to read and digest and authoritative since it is written by two world renowned scholars in English language teaching. To begin with, the book is divided into four main parts:
1. Major Trends in Twentieth-century Language Teaching,
2. Current Approaches and Methods,
3. Alternative Twentieth-century Approaches and Methods, and
4. The Teaching and Learning Environment.
These main parts are better sequenced and more salient now as it has Part 1 as the general background, Parts 2 and 3 as the core, discussing approaches and methods, and Part 4 as a nice finale. Part 1 contains four chapters, as in the second edition: (1) A brief history of early developments in language teaching, (2) The nature of approaches and methods in language teaching, (3) The Oral Approach and Situational Language Teaching, and (4) The Audio-lingual Method. Chapter 1 mainly talks about how ELT has developed, along with the Latin influence, The Grammar-Translation and Direct Methods. Chapter 2, an important section, explores the two key terms of the whole book ‘approach’ and ‘method’ (the first one being conceptual while the second being more concrete), based on Anthony’s (1963) three-tier system Approach, Method and Technique although Richards and Rodgers prefer Approach, Design and Procedure. In Approach, I am glad to see the additional detailed information of the seven theories of language (i.e. Cognitive Model, Structure Model, Functional Model, Interactional Model, Socio cultural Model, Genre Model and Lexical Model) and seven theories of learning (Behaviorism, Cognitive-code Learning, Creative-construction Hypothesis, Skill Learning, Interactional Theory, Constructivism, Sociocultural Learning Theory or Social Constructivism) and Individual factors. In Design, the authors describe objectives, the syllabus, learning and teaching activity types, learning roles, teacher roles and role of instructional materials. Not much is changed here from the second edition, and, considering the importance of these aspects. In Procedure, the authors explain the teaching steps of three different methods: Situational Language Teaching, Communicative Language Teaching (CLT) and Text-based lessons. Chapter 1 mainly talks about how ELT has developed, along with the Latin influence, The Grammar-Translation and Direct Methods. Chapter 2, an important section, explores the two key terms of the whole book ‘approach’ and ‘method’ (the first one being conceptual while the second being more concrete), based on Anthony’s (1963) three-tier system Approach, Method and Technique although Richards and Rodgers prefer Approach, Design and Procedure. In Approach, I am glad to see the additional detailed information of the seven theories of language (i.e. Cognitive Model, Structure Model, Functional Model, Interactional Model, Socio cultural Model, Genre Model and Lexical Model) and seven theories of learning (Behaviorism, Cognitive-code Learning, Creative-construction Hypothesis, Skill Learning, Interactional Theory, Constructivism, Socio cultural Learning Theory or Social Constructivism) and Individual factors. In Design, the authors describe objectives, the syllabus, learning and teaching activity types, learning roles, teacher roles and role of instructional materials. In Procedure, the authors explain the teaching steps of three different methods: Situational Language Teaching, Communicative Language Teaching (CLT) and Text-based lessons.
Part 3, Alternative Twentieth-century Approaches and Methods, also wonderfully presents five more ways of teaching: Krashen’s The Natural Approach, Asher’s Total Physical Response (TPR), Gattegno’s The Silent Way, Curran’s Community Language Learning, and Lozanov’s Suggestopedia. My favorite approaches/ methods are TPR (talking about brain lateralization; to me, TPR is usable at various levels and in many types of classroom, including English camps), The Silent Way (describing the importance of learning through discovery or creation, and learning via physical objects), and Suggestopedia (the benefits of the authority (i.e. the teacher), infantilization, double-planedness, and a relaxed classroom through music). The authors also try to associate these approaches and methods to SLA theories, especially for The Natural Approach. Part 4, The Teaching and Learning Environment, the final section, consists of four chapters: Learners, Approaches, and Methods; Teachers, Approaches, and Methods, Approaches, Methods, and the Curriculum, and Postscript. Chapter 19, mainly talks about four crucial topics in ELT/SLA: Learner autonomy (including a description of a successful class that promotes autonomous learning, and, some other features listed by Reinders, 2009, e.g. needs analysis, self-monitoring, learning-counseling, self-access centers and self-study) the most important learner strategies, especially Cognitive strategies, Metacognitive strategies, Social strategies and Affective strategies, learning styles, e.g. visual learners, kinesthetic learners and group learners, and Impact of Technology. In summary, the Approaches and Methods in Language Teaching book is a wonderful textbook with many good points: a good balance between the old and the new, as well as the theory and the practice; consistent format for each chapter; well documented chapters with lots of examples, illustrations and tables; a good conclusion for each chapter that links the current topic to other parts of the book; ample exercises in Discussion Questions at the end of each chapter.
Overall, "Approaches and Methods in Language Teaching" is a comprehensive and detailed book that provides a wealth of information and insights into the field of language teaching. The authors have done an excellent job of presenting a balanced and objective view of the various approaches and methods used in language teaching, and they have provided practical advice and guidance for language teachers. One of the strengths of the book is its focus on the theoretical foundations of the different approaches and methods. The authors have done an excellent job of explaining the underlying principles and assumptions of each approach, which helps readers to understand the strengths and weaknesses of each approach and to make informed decisions about which approach to use in their own teaching practice. Strength of the book is its practical focus. The authors provide numerous examples and case studies to illustrate the practical application of each approach and method. This makes the book particularly useful for language teachers who are looking for practical guidance and advice on how to implement different approaches and methods in their own teaching practice. One potential weakness of the book is its length and level of detail. Some readers may find the book to be too long and detailed, which could make it difficult to read and digest all of the information presented. However, for those who are willing to invest the time and effort, the book provides a wealth of valuable information and insights into the field of language teaching. To conclude, "Approaches and Methods in Language Teaching" is an excellent resource for language teachers, teacher trainers, and anyone interested in the field of language teaching. The book provides a comprehensive and detailed overview of the various approaches and methods used in language teaching, and it offers practical advice and guidance for language teachers.
SUPRIYA ALBERT 21133120040
TITLE: ENGLISH LANGUAGE TEACHING : APPROACHES, METHODS AND TECHNIQUES
AUTHOR: GEETHA NAGARAJ
PUBLISHER: ORIENT BLACKSWAN, 1996
ISBN 81 250 0751 2 , 97881 25007500
LENGTH: 232 PAGES
The Book ‘English Language Teaching’ by Geetha Nagaraj is an overview on approaches and teaching of the English Language. The book is divided into two parts , the first pivoting on methods and approaches to teaching and the second part substantially on the teaching technique and aids.
GENERAL PRINCIPLES OF LANGUAGE TEACHING
1. Speech before writing: Listening and speaking should be taught first, reading and writing next.
2. Basic Sentences: The teacher should help the students memorize basic conversational sentences as accurately as possible. Short statements and patterns must be taught earlier. Conversational dialogues are preferable to poetry or prose. So, the language teacher should help his students acquire mastery over certain basic sentences in English language.
3. Pattern as Habits: The language teacher should establish the patterns as habits through pattern practice. Knowing words. Individual sentences, and rules of grammar alone does not lead to language mastery. The students must learn to use them.
4.Sound system for use: The language teacher must teach the sound system structurally for use by demonstration, imitation, props, contrast and practice. To help students increase facility and fluency, practice becomes indispensable.
5.Vocabulary control: The language teacher should keep the vocabulary load to a minimum, while the students are mastering the sound system and the grammatical pattern.
6.Writing a representation by speech: Reading and writing should be taught on the basis of the language units and patterns that the students already know. Teacher should understand that teaching reading and writing are distinct from teaching speech.
7.Shaping of responses: When a student gives a partial or incorrect response, the teacher can help the student give a full response by the methods of partial practice (breaking the response into a smaller parts) and props (giving hints).
8.Immediate Reinforcement: While teaching, the student should know immediately the correctness or incorrectness of his Response. This improves learning of languages, the meaning of the content of the second language should be taught as it has develop in culture where the language is spoken natively.
9. Teaching for learning outcome:The teacher must teach primarily to produce learning outcome rather than to please or entertain.
MODERN APPROACHES:
A notional-functional syllabus is a set of materials to be learned by students of a second language. While learning to perform communicative activities, students practice language structures that refer to certain situations and ideas.
The communicative approach is based on the idea that learning language successfully comes through having to communicate real meaning. When learners are involved in real communication, their natural strategies for language acquisition will be used, and this will allow them to learn to use the language.
PRACTICING THE SKILLS IN TEACHING OF ENGLISH:
This particular chapter deals with the importance and role of various skills along with its components in teaching of second language teaching-learning process. It also, additionally gives a cutting edge methods of Teaching lesson plan.
What is teaching?
Teaching prose, poetry, grammar and composition. Furthermore, it explains how to write a mini- Teaching is neither merely imparting knowledge to students, nor merely giving advice. The best approach to understanding the nature of teaching is establishing a harmonious relationship between teacher, student and subject. Teaching is the activity of facilitating learning. Effectiveness in teachingDoes not relate to teacher’s age, sex, and teaching experience. One can become an effective teacher irrespective of his/her age, sex and experience.
What is learning? Learning is defined as nothing but “Change in behaviour occurs by activity, training or experiences”.
Learning happens while knowledge is generated in an environment, where interaction between teachers, students and content takes place in a interactive way.
Teachers, students and content takes place in interactive ways.
METHODS OF TEACHING ENGLISH:
This unit deals with various methods of teaching English as a second language and its significance in teaching and learning of English.
Grammar –Translation Method:
Grammar should be taught deductively that is grammar should be at first presented and studied and then practiced through a translation exercise. The vocabulary selection is based solely on the reading texts used and words taught through bilingual words lists, dictionary study and memorization. There should be much emphasis on accuracy. Students are expected to attain high standards in translation. The students native language is the medium of instruction. It is used to explain new items and to enable comprehension. In this method development of reading and writing skills should be the major focus.
Bilingual method:
The bilingual method is a method of language teaching developed by CJ Dodson (1967 / 1972) to improve the audio-visual method which was advocated in the 1960s. In the bilingual method, a lesson includes three stages of teaching:
Starting with the reproduction/performance of a basic dialogue. Moving on to the variation and recombination of the basic sentences.
Application of the previous dialogues / sentences in a new communicative work. Well-ordered activities in the bilingual method take the students up to a conversational level in the Shortest possible time.
Direct method:
Since the grammar-Translation method was not very effective in preparing students to use the target language communicatively, the direct method gained popularity. The direct method has one very basic rule: no translation is allowed. In fact, the direct method receives its name from the fact that meaning is to be connected directly with the target language without going through the process of translating into the students’ native language. The method aims at intense oral interaction in the
Classroom, so as to develop oral communication skills of the student.
Audio Lingual Method:
The term “audio lingual’ was coined by professor Nelson Brooks in 1964. The army programmes was to make the students attain conversational proficiency in a variety of foreign languages. At that time there were exciting new ideas about language and learning emanating from the disciplines of descriptive linguistics and behavioural psychology. These ideas led to the development of the Audio- Lingual Method. New vocabulary and grammatical structures are presented through dialogues. Drills are conducted based upon the patterns present in the dialogues.
Dr. West’s New Method:
Dr. Michael West has laid a great deal of importance to Reading. He has said that for Indian pupils Silent reading is important, no doubt, but Loud Reading is equally important. In this method a good deal of importance has been attached to the art of speaking and reading together as they are interrelated. But so far as teaching is concerned, both these things should be taught separately. He holds that it shall be easy for the teacher to give the students the practice of these two things separately.
AIDS AND TECHNIQUES:
Language is a medium through which one can express one’s ideas, thoughts, feelings, and messages. Language teaching is somehow a difficult task as it is basically conditioned by the nature of the subjects. So for making the teaching interesting, a teacher can take the help of teaching-learning materials. While selecting the teaching-learning materials, a teacher should ensure that the skills of reading, understanding, listening, and speaking can be developed. Teaching aids are the tools that the teachers use in the classroom such as, Flash cards, maps, cassettes and Black/white board and it is a tool use by teachers to help learners improve listening, speaking, reading, writing and other language skills.
Teaching aids illustrate or reinforce a skill, fact or idea and relieve dears or boredom, since many teaching aids are like games. There are different categories of teaching aids. They are,
Audio Aids
Video Aids
Audio – Visual Aids
Audio-visual aids imply anything by means of which learning process may be encouraged or carried on through the sense of hearing and the sense of sight.
Types of teaching aids that can be used in the classroom.
Chalkboard/Whiteboard
Audiotapes/CDs
Videotapes/DVDs
Text books
Computer
Puppets
Flipcharts, Flashcards, andWorksheets
Overhead Projector/Transparencies
Power Point Presentations
Data Projectors/Smart Board
Educational CDs and DVDs,
Televisions
Online dictionaries, encyclopedias talking dictionaries, online tests.
Interactive electronic white board as a tool in modern teaching
PowerPoint slides and games
Dramatization and plays
Crossword puzzles, quizzes and story telling etc.
Scientific apparatus, materials and models used in classrooms and science labs
Maps, Atlases and globes
Charts, pictures and posters .
Realia – objects or activities used to relate classroom teaching to the real life especially of peoples studies/ Using Real objects.
The book on the whole is a holy grail to teachers and students aspiring to attain knowledge in the English language teaching.
SWEATHA C 2113312005042
Original title -Pedagogia do oprimido
Setting -Brazil
This edition
Format -192 pages, Paperback
Published -September 1, 2000 Bloomsbury Academic
ISBN: 9780826412768
ISBN10: 0826412769
Language -English
First published - January 1, 1968
Freire explains in the prologue how the idea for Pedagogy of the Oppressed came about, adding that it is based on his prior experiences as a teacher in Brazil and his observations from the time he spent in political exile. Freire found that many of his pupils have a "fear of freedom" as he worked to instill critical consciousness (or conscientizaço) in them. He asserts that this dread, however, is primarily a fear of the risks that freedom entails rather than a fear of freedom itself. Moreover, Freire notes that the book was created "for radicals" and that his beliefs may be criticized as being excessively utopian or retrograde. He makes a clear distinction between radicalization—a commitment to meaningful social change and human liberation—and sectarianism, a belief system that distorts reality and seeks to thwart progress. According to Freire, the participants in the educational paradigm he proposes must have undergone radicalization for it to be effective. In his reflection on the gaps in his work, Freire notes that the reader may evaluate it critically and identify parts of his argument that even he has overlooked.
A "pedagogy of the oppressed" is required, according to Freire, who argues this in Chapter 1. The issue of how we establish our identities as humans is what he refers to as "humankind's primary challenge" in the opening paragraph. Whilst this is something that everyone aspires to, oppressive institutions that abuse and take advantage of those who are under oppression frequently prevent it from happening. According to Freire, the battle for liberation may help oppressed people rediscover their humanity, but only if they are the ones leading the fight. The main issue of the book is how to develop an educational system with and for oppressed people that would assist them in achieving greater freedom. The effects of oppression on the minds of those who are oppressed and those who are oppressors are then covered by Freire.As individuals are oppressed, they get estranged from one another and start to view their oppressors favorably. Oppressors treat people like objects to be possessed and view freedom as a threat. According to Freire, the struggle for freedom must be conducted in two phases: meditation on the nature of oppression and then actual action to end it. Instead of adopting oppressor behavior, leaders in this struggle must engage in discourse with those who are oppressed.
Freire's thoughts on education are introduced in Chapter 2. He dismantles the established power and knowledge disparity between instructors and pupils that exists in the educational system. A teacher "deposits" information into the minds of the pupils under this "banking model" of education, and it is up to them to learn it and remember it. Instead of teaching pupils how to critically analyze the world, Freire criticizes this concept and claims that it encourages them to conform to an oppressive society. Oppressed individuals and educators should reject the banking model in the struggle for liberation; Freire proposes a "problem-posing model" in its stead that elevates instructors and students on an equal footing. Education that poses difficulties exposes students to real-world issues that are relevant to their daily lives and encourages them to consider the causes and effects of such issues. By enabling individuals to critically examine their circumstances and by promoting communication, the Freire model, in his opinion, directly combats oppression.
In Chapter 3, Freire elaborates on the idea of conversation, contending that it is an act of "love, humility, and faith" in human nature in a society that is hierarchical. Also, discussion calls for the participants to be hopeful, trustworthy of one another, and critical thinkers. Like to the larger struggle for freedom, discourse involves both ideas and practical acts taken simultaneously (praxis), and Freire criticizes those who simply think or act. He then goes on to discuss the interaction of people with the environment and makes the case that teachers need to take into consideration how their students see reality and the past. He draws a distinction between people, who are able to comprehend how humans have built the world we live in now and can change its future, and animals, which are only aware of the present and have no sense of history. The beliefs and ideals of the time are what define historical times, and Freire refers to the ways in which those beliefs are manifest in the real world as "themes." Students may broaden their knowledge of the world and teachers can learn more about the viewpoints of their students by having students explore these issues in a classroom setting. According to Freire, one strategy for doing this is for teachers to show situations to pupils and ask them how they feel about them using audio and visual elements.
Freire presents a notion of "cultural action" in Chapter 4, which refers to the techniques people employ to bring about cultural transformation. Dialogical action and anti-dialogical action are the two categories he uses to categorize cultural behavior. Oppressors use anti-dialogical action to maintain their dominance and divide groups of people, whereas radical political leaders can use dialogical action to unite people in the struggle for freedom.
Conquest, divide-and-conquer, manipulation, and cultural encroachment are just a few of the numerous "anti-dialogical action" strategies that Freire goes into great detail. He then draws a clear comparison between these and the "dialogical activity" of radical political figures: collaboration, harmony, organization, and synthesis of cultural elements. In addition, a significant portion of the chapter is devoted to Freire's analysis of radical political figures and the qualities they must possess in order to truly aid oppressed people. These leaders must to be aware of the obstacles that deter oppressed people from joining the struggle and ought to steer clear of the tricks that oppressors employ to keep them in check.
Review of the Techniques and Principles in Language Teaching 3rd Edition - Oxford Handbooks for Language Teachers
Book -Diane Larsen-Freeman and Marti Anderson.
The Grammar-Translation Method is not new. It has had different names, but it has been used by language teachers for many years. At one time it was called the
Classical Method since it was first used in the teaching of the classical languages,
Latin and Greek. Earlier in the 20th century, this method was used for the purpose of
helping students to read and appreciate foreign language literature. It was also
hoped that through the study of the grammar of the target language1 students would become
more familiar with the grammar of their native language and that this familiarity
would help them speak and write their native language better. Finally, it was thought that foreign language learning would help students grow intellectually; it was recognized that students would probably never use the target language, but the mental exercise of learning it would be beneficial anyway.
Introduction :
As with the Grammar-Translation Method, the Direct Method is not new. Its principles have been applied by language teachers for many years. Most recently, it was revived as a method when the goal of instruction became learning how to use another language to communicate. Since the Grammar-Translation Method was not
very effective in preparing students to use the target language communicatively, the Direct Method became popular.
The Direct Method has one very basic rule: No translation is allowed. In fact, the Direct Method receives its name from the fact that meaning is to be conveyed directly in the target language through the use of demonstration and visual aids, with no
recourse to the students’ native language.
The Audio-Lingual Method, like the Direct Method we have just examined, also an oral-based approach. However, it is very different, in that rather than emphasizing vocabulary acquisition through exposure to its use in situations, theAudio-Lingual
Method drills students in the use of grammatical sentence patterns. Also,unlike the
Direct Method, it has a strong theoretical base in linguistics and psychology. Charles Fries (1945) of the University of Michigan led the way in applying principles from structural linguistics in developing the method, and for this reason, it has sometimes been referred to as the ‘Michigan Method.’ Later in its development, principles from behavioral psychology (Skinner 1957) were incorporated. It was thought that the way to acquire the sentence patterns of the target language was through conditioning— helping learners to respond correctly to stimuli through shaping and reinforcement, so that the learners could overcome the habits of their native language and form the new habits required to be target language speakers.
The Silent Way
Introduction
Although people did learn languages through the Audio-Lingual Method, and indeed the method is still practiced today, one problem with it was students’ inability to readily transfer the habits they had mastered in the classroom to communicative use outside it. Furthermore, the idea that learning a language meant forming a set of habits was seriously challenged in the early 1960s. Linguist Noam Chomsky argued that language acquisition could not possibly take place through habit formation since people create and understand utterances they have never heard before. Chomsky proposed instead that speakers have a knowledge of underlying abstract rules, which allow them to understand and create novel utterances. Thus, Chomsky reasoned,language must not be considered a product of habit formation, but rather of rule formation. Accordingly, language acquisition must be a procedure where by people use their own thinking processes, or cognition, to discover the rules of the language they are acquiring. The emphasis on human cognition led to the establishment of the Cognitive Code
Approach. Rather than simply being responsive to stimuli in the environment,
learners were seen to be much more actively.
SWETHA P 2113312005042
"The Art of Teaching" by Gilbert Highet :
ISBN-10 - 9780679723141
ISBN-13 - 978-0679723141
Edition - Reissue
Publisher - Vintage Books
Publication date - 13 Mar. 1989
Print length - 288 pages
Gilbert Highet is a Critic and classical scholar, who was born in Scotland, educated at Oxford, and taught at Oxford and Columbia for forty years. Gilbert was Married to a novelist Helen MacInnes.Gilbert Highet was Best known for teaching the humanities in the UK and USA. "The Art of Teaching" by Gilbert Highet is a classic work that offers valuable insights into the principles of effective teaching. As a teacher himself, Highet draws on his own experiences and those of other great teachers to provide a comprehensive guide to the art of teaching. One of the strengths of this book is its emphasis on the importance of preparation and subject matter expertise. Highet stresses that teachers must have a deep understanding of their subject and be able to communicate it effectively to their students. He provides practical advice for how teachers can improve their subject knowledge and communicate it clearly and engagingly. The art of teaching refers to the skillful and creative application of pedagogical principles and practices to engage and inspire learners. It involves a combination of knowledge, experience, intuition, and empathy to create effective learning experiences that meet the needs and interests of students. The art of teaching goes beyond the mere transmission of information and encompasses the cultivation of critical thinking, creativity, and problem-solving skills. It also involves creating a positive learning environment that fosters collaboration, respect, and inclusivity. Effective teachers are able to adapt their teaching methods to meet the unique learning styles and abilities of their students and to foster a love of learning that lasts a lifetime. The art of teaching is a lifelong pursuit that requires ongoing learning, reflection, and growth.
Pedagogy refers to the methods, strategies, and techniques used to teach and educate individuals or groups. It involves the study of teaching and learning processes, as well as the principles and practices that support effective instruction. Pedagogy encompasses not only what is taught, but also how it is taught and the social and cultural contexts in which learning takes place. Effective pedagogy is focused on learner-centered approaches that engage and motivate students, and promote their cognitive, social, and emotional development. Pedagogy is an interdisciplinary field that draws from education, psychology, sociology, and other related disciplines.
In the book, Highet explores the essential principles of effective teaching, emphasizing the importance of engaging students in the learning process and fostering their creativity and critical thinking skills. He advocates for a learner-centered approach that tailors instruction to the needs and interests of students, rather than focusing solely on rote memorization of facts and figures. Highet draws upon his own experiences as a teacher and scholar to offer practical advice and insights on a wide range of topics, including lesson planning, classroom management, assessment, and the role of technology in education. He also discusses the social and cultural contexts of education, and the importance of creating a positive and inclusive learning environment. One of the most valuable aspects of "The Art of Teaching" is Highet's emphasis on the lifelong pursuit of learning and the need for teachers to continually reflect on their practice and seek out new ideas and approaches. He encourages teachers to be creative and experimental in their teaching methods, and to cultivate a love of learning in their students.
The book is divided into two parts. The first part examines the basic principles of teaching, including the importance of preparation, the role of enthusiasm, the significance of discipline, and the value of intellectual curiosity. Highet emphasizes the need for teachers to have a deep understanding of their subject matter and the ability to communicate it effectively to their students.
The second part of the book discusses the characteristics of a good teacher. According to Highet, a good teacher is someone who is passionate about their subject, empathetic towards their students, patient, and has a sense of humor. He also stresses the importance of being able to adapt to different learning styles and creating an environment that fosters intellectual curiosity and critical thinking.
Another key theme of the book is the importance of enthusiasm and passion in teaching. Highet argues that teachers who are passionate about their subject and convey that passion to their students are more likely to inspire them to learn and achieve their full potential. He also stresses the importance of empathy and understanding towards students, and offers advice on how to create a positive and supportive classroom environment. Throughout the book, Highet uses examples from his own teaching experiences and from history to illustrate his points. He also provides practical advice for teachers, including tips for classroom management and ways to keep students engaged.
One of the strengths of this book is that it is not limited to a particular subject or age group, but rather offers principles and advice that can be applied to any teaching situation. Highet draws on examples from history and literature to illustrate his points, which adds richness and depth to his analysis. The only potential drawback of this book is that it was first published in 1950, and some of the examples and references may seem outdated to modern readers. However, the principles and advice offered in the book are still relevant and valuable today. Overall, "The Art of Teaching" is a timeless and insightful work that offers valuable guidance to teachers at all levels. Its emphasis on preparation, subject knowledge, enthusiasm, and empathy make it a must-read for anyone interested in the art of teaching. "The Art of Teaching" is a classic book on education written by Gilbert Highet, a renowned educator, and scholar. The book was first published in 1950 and has since become a popular reference for teachers and educators worldwide. Overall, "The Art of Teaching" is a timeless and inspiring book that remains relevant today. It offers valuable insights and practical advice for anyone interested in the field of education, and is essential reading for teachers, educators, and aspiring educators alike.
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